Abstract

(Pakistan’s digital infrastructure framework reveals systemic inefficiencies that impede its integration into the global digital economy and equitable socio-economic advancement. Despite achieving mobile broadband penetration of 53.2% and 4G coverage spanning 75% of the population, the nation underperforms relative to regional counterparts in critical domains: fiber-optic network penetration (1%), fixed broadband adoption (1%), and composite indices such as the ICT Development Index (32.23/100). The 2022 Network Readiness Index (NRI) positions Pakistan at 90th among 134 nations, with pronounced deficits in governance (117th), technological adoption (49th), and human capital development (89th). A persistent digital divide characterized by urban-rural asymmetries (21% rural internet access vs. 55% urban), gender disparities (female mobile internet usage 41% lower than males), and socioeconomic stratification (56% mobile internet adoption in the lowest income quintile vs. 84% in the highest) constrains inclusive growth. Provincial initiatives, such as Punjab’s digitized land records and Sindh’s public-private tech collaborations, demonstrate incremental progress, yet fragmented policy implementation, regulatory inertia, and underdeveloped physical infrastructure (e.g., limited Tier-4 data centers, 66,000 km of long-haul optical fiber) persist. The telecommunications sector, while dynamic, grapples with structural challenges, including the world’s lowest average revenue per user (ARPU), suboptimal energy efficiency in data centers, and spectrum allocation inefficiencies. Addressing these multifaceted barriers is imperative to leverage Pakistan’s demographic dividend (59% of the population under 30) and realize a projected USD 36 billion GDP uplift through enhanced digital literacy. – Authors)

1. Introduction

The role of digital infrastructure, including physical infrastructure, connectivity, and digital literacy, is important in supporting the digital ecosystem.[1] It encompasses elements such as network coverage, performance, internet bandwidth, security, digital literacy, and telecommunications market dynamics. A stable digital infrastructure is essential for digital inclusion, economic growth, and global competitiveness.

Digital infrastructure enables economic activities in both rural and urban areas by providing stable broadband networks, extensive mobile coverage, and accessible internet connectivity. The current expansion is driven by cloud-based systems, hybrid work environments, and process automation to meet market demands. Bridging the urban-rural divide is crucial for equitable access.

Moreover, digital infrastructure contributes to digital inclusion and empowerment by closing access gaps and ensuring individuals from diverse backgrounds can participate actively in the digital economy. This reduces disparities and unlocks new opportunities for societal advancement.

In our analysis that follows, the digital infrastructure pillar is further divided into three sub-pillars namely, digital physical infrastructure, connectivity, digital literacy, and digital divide as depicted in Figure 1.

The following section offers key insights into the current state, requirements, and prospects of Pakistan’s digital infrastructure landscape. It sheds light on the prevailing policy framework, broadband penetration, mobile coverage, data accessibility, and their adequacy for inclusive socio-economic growth. We will explore how digital infrastructure benefits rural areas, and marginalized communities, as well as small and medium enterprises (SMEs), larger businesses, and industries in Pakistan. Subsequently, based on the evidence provided, we will identify existing obstacles, potential policy recommendations, and future possibilities.

2. A Comparative Analysis

The urgency for Pakistan to take immediate action to enhance its digital landscape is underscored by the substantial advancements made by neighboring countries.[2] In the 2022 Network Readiness Index (NRI) assessment, Pakistan ranked 90^th out of 134 countries. The NRI shows scores out of 100 with a higher score representing a higher level of network readiness. The NRI analysis explains several key areas, providing a detailed breakdown of scores such as technology[1] (score = 45.20), people[2] (36.25), governance[3] (36.86), and impact[4] (46.74), with corresponding rankings for Pakistan (out of 134 countries) of 49th, 89th, 117th, and 93rd, respectively. These findings highlight the need for urgent interventions to improve Pakistan’s digital readiness and competitiveness on the global stage.[3]

The World Internet Development Report 2023 places Pakistan at 45th position out of 52 countries, with a score of 41.82 on the World Internet Development Index. This index encompasses six critical metrics, namely: information technology infrastructure, digital technology and innovation capability, digital economy, digital government, cyber security, and cyberspace international management, each of which assesses a country’s performance in these respective areas. Pakistan’s rankings in these specific indicators remain on the lower side as follows: 47th (out of 52 countries) in information technology infrastructure, 43rd in digital technology and innovation capability, 42nd in digital economy, 45th in digital government, 45th in cyber security, and 40th in cyberspace international management.[4]

Despite the country’s population exceeding 240 million, only slightly above 87 million individuals use the internet. While mobile broadband usage has surged rapidly, the rate of fixed broadband access remains low, with only 1.7 subscriptions per 100 people.^[5] There are still numerous rural vicinities that have not received optic fiber network connection, which are crucial for achieving high-speed connectivity.^[6] 

In Table 1 we compare fiber connectivity penetration and quality, the percentage of internet users, and the combined ICT Development Index and Network Readiness Index scores. In terms of fiber connectivity, Pakistan scores the lowest at 16 out of 100, revealing significant variance compared to Bangladesh (26), India (29), and notably Vietnam (62). Additionally, Pakistan’s internet usage stands at 21% of its population, trailing behind Bangladesh (39%), India (46%), and notably Vietnam (74%).

Table 1: Select Indicators related to digital infrastructure.

When considering the combined score for the ICT Development Index and Network Readiness Index (32.23 on a 0-100 scale), Pakistan ranks the lowest in this comparison. While closely resembling Bangladesh’s score (33.11), it falls behind India (40.02) and notably lags behind Vietnam (47.69), highlighting lower readiness and development in information and communication technology infrastructure. In summary, this evidence explains Pakistan’s inferior digital infrastructure and internet penetration relative to its peers.

2.1 Policy and Regulations for Digital Infrastructure

The policies and strategies formulated in Pakistan over the years, as outlined in Table 2, reflect the government’s efforts to address various aspects of the telecommunications and digital landscape. Some policies, such as the Mobile Cellular Policy and Broadband Policy revisions, have contributed to expanding connectivity and digital infrastructure[11]. Gaps persist in areas like broadband penetration, cybersecurity, and promoting a conducive environment for emerging technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) and freelancing.

Table 2: Policies and strategies formulated in Pakistan

2.2 Provincial Strategies

Provincial governments have also taken their own initiatives to improve digital infrastructure. Several targeted investments through provincial ADP help optimize the deployment of digital sector projects. Our analysis indicates that all provinces are at different stages of digital infrastructure development. Below is a summary of efforts by provincial governments. 

2.2.1 Punjab

The Punjab Information Technology Board (PITB)[13] implements a strategy centered on government service digitization. For example, efforts include online tax and government fee payments and facilitated public access to digitized land records. The education sector has undergone a transformative shift due to PITB’s efforts. Implementation of digital systems for school records and the utilization of advanced monitoring tools have strengthened educational administration, leading to improved resource distribution. Furthermore, PITB’s e-Learn Punjab platform[14] has created an innovative online learning environment that transcends geographical barriers, rendering education accessible to both students and educators. The ADP schemes in Punjab prioritize promoting private sector investment in ICT infrastructure, fostering shared use of ICT resources, establishing a centralized Punjab Data Center for public sector applications, integrating telecommunications into public infrastructure, and implementing a Right of Way Policy to support broadband expansion province-wide[15].

2.2.2 Sindh

Government initiatives in Sindh include collaborations with Google, Tech Valley, and Information Science and Technology (IS&T) to offer practical services, training, and certifications. The establishment of the Sindh Digital Technology Board, the Digitizing Education Sector program, and the introduction of the “Sindh Cloud First Policy” reflect the government’s commitment to digitization[16]. These efforts, along with the Sindh Information Technology Park and the “Sindh Digital Village” program, aim to stimulate IT startups and bridge the rural-urban digital divide, provided they are implemented consistently and in collaboration with the private sector.

2.2.3 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

The “Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Digital Policy 2018-2023[17]” encompasses four primary dimensions: access, governance, economy, and skills. However, several overarching policies transcend these pillars. These include ensuring financial inclusion and equitable distribution of digital benefits for women and marginalized communities, augmenting public-private collaborations to facilitate the province’s digital evolution, promptly executing the Digital Policy in the newly amalgamated districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and securing the allocation of the provincial share in ICT services from the federal government. The government introduced the following policies to increase internet access in the province:

• Provincial Sales Tax rationalization from 19.5% on mobile and fixed broadband services in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to facilitate service providers to enhance their footprint and upgrade technology infrastructure.
• Infrastructure works and projects shall have a provision for broadband conduit deployment to reduce the cost of fiber deployment.
• Phase-wise transformation of broadband services from copper-based networks to optical fiber networks will be implemented to improve the quality of service at an affordable price
• Use of technology in various sectors, especially health, education, and agriculture; to connect remote areas and populations to developed areas will be promoted.

2.2.4 Balochistan

With an internet penetration rate of approximately 25% of the 87.35 million internet users, well below the national average, Balochistan’s connectivity hurdles are exacerbated by its rugged terrain and vast geographical distances. To address this, initiatives such as the “Balochistan Fiber Optic Backbone Project” have been initiated, aiming to bridge the connectivity gap. Furthermore, universities in the region are embracing digital learning, with initiatives like the “Balochistan Innovation Park”[18] nurturing tech talent and fostering a conducive ecosystem.

The issue of coordination with other federating units extends to institutional capacity and governance, with uneven distribution of skilled personnel and resources across provinces hindering effective digital governance initiatives. Furthermore, a lack of awareness and coordination between provincial and federal governments contributes to implementation bottlenecks.

Good Local Practices and Examples: Pakistan Single Window (PSW)

PSW is an integrated digital platform that allows parties involved in international trade to lodge standardized information and documents with a single-entry point to fulfill all import, export, and transit-related regulatory requirements. It aims at reducing the time and cost of doing business by digitalizing Pakistan’s cross-border trade and eliminating paper-based manual processes.

Source: https://www.psw.gov.pk/

2.3 Digital Physical Infrastructure

While there is a significant surge in mobile connectivity (Table 3), with almost 75% of the population enjoying 4G coverage, there is still a notable deficiency in achieving this level of coverage for everyone. Pakistan’s data centers are in dire need of a significant upgrade. The existing quantity is insufficient when compared to other data centers in the region. These data centers are primarily concentrated in major cities, but there are concerns regarding their security, energy efficiency, and the reliability of their fiber optic connectivity[19].

Table 3: State of Digital Physical Infrastructure 2023

As of end-2023, there were 20 data centers across tier-1 cities of the country out of which 11 are termed advanced or certified. These centers are offering co-location and cloud services to public and private sector organizations[23]. These secure facilities store, process, and manage crucial data, fueling the country’s digital economy.

The revenue of Pakistan’s data center market is projected to reach USD 1.71 billion by 2025, with an anticipated compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.43%. This growth is expected to result in a total market volume of approximately USD 2.44 billion by 2030.[7] Pakistan’s data center market lags behind some of its regional peers, such as Malaysia and Vietnam. Malaysia’s data center market is projected to achieve a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.88% between 2025 and 2030, reaching a market volume of approximately USD 2.34 billion by 2030.[8] Similarly, Vietnam’s data center market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 6.59% over the same period, with an estimated market volume of USD 3.54 billion by 2030.[9] In comparison, the global data center market is anticipated to expand at a CAGR of 6.98%, attaining a total market volume of around USD 739.05 billion by 2030.[10]

Furthermore, existing data centers often struggle with outdated infrastructure and insufficient power management. Frequent outages and unreliable internet connectivity impede smooth operations and discourage foreign investment. Additionally, cybersecurity concerns loom as data security regulations and awareness lag behind international standards. These vulnerabilities expose sensitive information and hamper trust in Pakistan’s digital ecosystem.

The energy inefficiency of data centers is concerning due to their substantial power consumption under limited overall energy resources[24]. The adoption of energy-efficient measures in the network infrastructure of data centers, such as the use of updated network switch models is being advocated.⁸ Another factor to consider is the spatial dispersion of data centers and that data centers can optimize their operational expenses and improve their ability to fulfill user requests by utilizing variable power prices and renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind power.

Pakistan’s optical fiber coverage is low, at 1%, compared to Vietnam (44.5%) and Malaysia (32.1%)[25]. Whilst only 13% of mobile towers have been connected via optic fiber, the last-mile connectivity reaching end consumers is progressing (PTA, 2022). Based on market estimates, only around one-third of the country’s total telecom towers are fiberized, indicating potential for expansion (Philpott et al., 2020).

National Telecommunication Corporation (NTC) is eyeing public-private partnership options for building a cutting-edge[11] tier-4 data center[26]. Government-funded USF programs are underway albeit at a slow pace. Teaming up with the private sector and allocating annual funding via public sector development program or financing by development partners will speed things up along with lowering costs through local production, trying different types of fiber, and encouraging competition to drive down prices.

The availability of high-speed internet is dependent on the presence of fiber optic cables, which are only accessible in certain regions (see state of fiberization in Table 3). Consequently, citizens living in areas without fiber-optic cables often resort to slower alternatives like DSL or wireless internet connections.

2.4 Connectivity

This section discusses the state of mobile network coverage, broadband penetration, and affordability. Despite the extensive coverage of 3G/4G networks, which reaches a significant portion of the population, the penetration of broadband services continues to be disappointingly low. This is primarily due to the inadequate development of fixed-line infrastructure in comparison to the advancements made in mobile networks.

This situation gives rise to a distinct scenario in which, despite extensive mobile network coverage, the ability to fully employ the internet’s capabilities remains restricted, impeding the progress of a genuinely dynamic digital environment. Wider accessibility has enabled more users to come online, adoption gaps exist between income segments. Only 56% of the bottom 20% income quintile use mobile internet against 84% penetration for top earners[27]. Network upgrades have also concentrated around urban corridors resulting in uneven access nationwide[28].

The increasing recognition of the importance of digital connectivity in Pakistan’s socio-economic development is apparent from the investments made by major companies like Nayatel and Facebook. They have announced a partnership to invest in fiber broadband infrastructure in Pakistan, aiming to enhance connectivity across the country. Nayatel will deploy new fiber networks to serve as the backbone infrastructure for both 4G and 5G mobile and fixed broadband. Under the collaboration, Nayatel will be responsible for owning, building, maintaining, and operating the new fiber network, providing capacity to mobile operators and internet service providers (ISPs). Facebook, in turn, will invest in fiber build and support network planning[29].

The initiative was designed to connect thousands of sites, expanding internet access to approximately 10 to 15 million people across eight major cities in Pakistan. The network will play a vital role in supporting Pakistan’s digital revolution and aligns with the government’s efforts to enhance inclusive connectivity. It will offer fiber backhaul on an open-access, non-discriminatory basis to mobile operators and ISPs, contributing to increased capacity and supporting high-speed 4G/5G connectivity²⁴.

Service providers continue to be hindered by low margins and regulatory obstacles, preventing them from achieving widespread coverage and providing a reliable internet experience. This issue is evident in Pakistan’s weak ranking (78 out of 81 countries) on the Fiber Development Index^[30] and its low rate of internet penetration. Although the number of broadband subscribers has tripled since 2016, more than half of the population still lacks access to the internet.

2.4.1.1 Telecommunication Network

Pakistan’s telecommunications infrastructure has experienced growth with investments in mobile broadband and fiber optic technology[31]. The strengths of Pakistan’s telecommunication network include widespread mobile connectivity, a high penetration rate of mobile broadband services, and ongoing projects to expand fiber optic networks across the nation[32]. Challenges persist, including uneven rural-urban connectivity, regulatory hurdles, and infrastructure security concerns[33].

Comparatively, India in this region boasts a more extensive telecommunications infrastructure with a strong emphasis on digital initiatives and a rapidly expanding mobile and internet user base[34]. However, it faces similar rural connectivity challenges[35]. Bangladesh has made progress in mobile broadband penetration through government initiatives but grapples with quality-of-service issues and an urban-rural divide[36]. Vietnam has rapidly modernized its telecommunications infrastructure, prioritizing 5G and smart city development[37]. It enjoys relatively better urban-rural connectivity but faces challenges related to internet freedom and regulatory constraints[38].

Pakistan’s telecommunications sector presents potential for advancement, driven by its sizable and youthful, tech-savvy population. The rapid adoption of mobile broadband technologies and planned investments in infrastructure development highlight opportunities for further progress. However, challenges such as regulatory hurdles, digital access disparities across regions, and the pressing need for enhanced cybersecurity measures represent areas requiring attention[39].

2.4.1.2 Mobile Network Coverage

As of December 2023, total cellular subscribers reached 190 million with mobile penetration exceeding 90% of the total population¹⁶. Pakistan is a significant market, holding the 8th position globally in terms of the number of subscriptions. The total count of mobile phone users in Pakistan was 190.95 million at the end of June 2023[40].

The number of individuals utilizing 3G and 4G was coming out to be 123.07 million. The overall tele density stood at 81.4%. The average mobile download speeds in Pakistan were around 18 Mbps in 2022, which is below the global average[41].

A gender gap persists with women 33% less likely to own a mobile phone compared to men, highlighting the need for targeted inclusion efforts. The primary obstacle hindering mobile phone ownership in select areas is family and community disapproval. Other significant obstacles include low literacy levels and the affordability of handsets and data[42].

2.4.1.3 Gender divide

While a recent gender disaggregated dataset is desired, according to GSMA Intelligence’s Consumer Survey Report of 2019, approximately 35% of women, compared to only 6% of men, cited disapproval from their families regarding their mobile phone usage. In contrast, network coverage issues were reported by 2% of women and 4% of men. The possession of required registration or identification documents was a concern for only 1% of both genders. Interestingly, neither women nor men encountered difficulties in locating a mobile phone agent or purchasing credit/top-up airtime. None of the surveyed women found mobile phone battery charging to be a burdensome or costly task, whereas 3% of men expressed a different perspective. In terms of literacy challenges, a higher proportion of women experience difficulties in reading and writing compared to men. However, there has been notable progress among young women, with their literacy rate increasing significantly from 46% to 61%.[12] In comparison, the literacy rate for young men also improved, rising from 72% to 77%, though the rate of progress was more pronounced among young women.[13] Despite recent improvements in digital inclusion, Pakistan continues to exhibit significant gender disparities in financial and digital access. Only 6% of women possess a bank account and 7% use mobile phones for financial transactions, compared to 31% and over 20% of men, respectively. Although the gender gap in mobile internet awareness has narrowed from 16% to 11%, and women’s mobile internet usage has nearly doubled from 10% to 19%, substantial inequalities remain. Mobile phone ownership is markedly unequal, with just 50% of women owning a mobile phone compared to 81% of men, a difference representing approximately 22 million fewer women than men. Furthermore, women are 49% less likely to use mobile internet, equating to 12 million fewer female users.[14] According to the GSMA report, while 46% of women recognize mobile phones as essential sources of information, Pakistan still ranks among countries with the widest mobile gender gap globally.[15] These persistent inequalities highlight the critical need for targeted policy interventions to advance women’s financial and digital inclusion.

In terms of unwanted communication, 5% of women expressed concerns about receiving unwanted calls or messages, while only 3% of men shared these concerns. Regarding personal safety, 2% of women reported feeling at risk when using a mobile phone, compared to 6% of men. Additionally, 2% of women expressed worries about the theft or misuse of their identity or private information, with no men sharing similar concerns³⁶.

2.4.1.4 Broadband Penetration

Fixed broadband adoption significantly lags in mobile access, indicating users` reliance on mobile data networks for connectivity. Fixed broadband subscriptions have experienced particularly robust growth, increasing at an average annual rate of 5.9 percent over the past five years.[43]. Fiber-optic broadband penetration is even lower at just 0.68 per 100 people which is around one-third of the Asia Pacific average[44].

IT and IT-enabled Services (IT and ITeS) is one of Pakistan’s fastest-growing sectors, contributing 1% of GDP. After doubling in four years, experts estimate it to rise 100% to USD 7 billion in the next four years[45]. Broadband penetration in Pakistan has reached nearly 90% among the 140 million individuals aged 15–64, representing 59% of the country’s total population of 236 million[46]. This high level of broadband access within the working-age demographic signifies substantial progress in digital connectivity, with important implications for economic development, access to information, and the potential for digital inclusion across key sectors.

Despite making significant progress in mobile connectivity, rural areas in Pakistan continue to face various challenges. Economic feasibility concerns discourage private operators from extending their services to sparsely populated regions, resulting in underserved communities. Furthermore, the geographical obstacles, such as mountainous terrain and expansive deserts, further complicate the expansion of network coverage. Lastly, the lack of digital literacy among rural populations exacerbates the barrier to accessing mobile connectivity, extending a cycle of limited demand and investment.

Power shortages have also played a significant role in the internet service disruption. The occurrence of a widespread power outage in Pakistan during January 2023 resulted in the deactivation of numerous mobile phone towers, potentially leading to a telecommunications blackout in certain regions of the country. The interruption in power supply has had an impact on the national grid, affecting approximately 40,000 telecommunication towers. There are concerns regarding potential disruptions in communication, as the backup fuel and batteries for these towers may be depleted if power is not promptly restored. Reports indicate a decline in service quality in certain areas, with social media users in major cities such as Islamabad expressing dissatisfaction with the disappearance of mobile signals. PTA has issued a warning regarding the possibility of service outages because of the power failure[47].

The USF – a subsidiary of the Ministry of IT & Telecom (MoITT) has finalized plans for various projects, including a 400-kilometer fiber optic project in Gwadar, bringing 4G services to Loralai in Balochistan, and upgrading data services to 4G in several areas. Additionally, the USF plans to expand its coverage to national road arteries, including the M-4 motorway. Ongoing projects on motorways and highways are progressing, with coverage achieved on 1,929 kilometers (end 2023) of unserved roads across the country.

However, some parts of NH 25-65 face delays due to local administrative issues and the lack of No Objection Certificates (NOC) for installing telecom towers. USF’s upcoming projects also include the use of solar energy to power telecommunication sites in remote areas, ensuring sustainability and financial viability. Since 2018, USF has launched 56 projects, totaling over Rs52 billion, to provide optical fiber cable and broadband services across the country. Despite delays in a few projects due to weather conditions and difficult routes, the majority have progressed as scheduled^[48].

2.4.1.5 Smartphone affordability

Despite rising smartphone ownership, many Pakistanis, especially in rural areas and women, are left offline due to the high costs of mobile phones. This affordability gap limits access to education, healthcare, and jobs. Industry has advised that the Government may cut import taxes, boost local production of smartphones, and offer financing options for low-income individuals[49]. Local brands are gradually emerging, offering devices with basic functionalities at competitive prices.

The cost of mobile ownership along with data charges poses barriers for low-income groups to avail quality connectivity, resulting in uneven digital adoption. Even, 1 GB of mobile data costs around 3% of monthly income for the average citizen, higher than economies like India and Malaysia[50]. Taxation contributes around 30% to mobile ownership costs in Pakistan – amongst the highest globally[51]. Handset import levies also inflate prices, causing smartphones to be unaffordable for over half the population. Women particularly find these charges unaffordable, hindering mobile access improvement. In Pakistan, there is a notable disparity between men and women in terms of internet access and cell ownership, as women are 41% less inclined to utilize mobile internet compared to males³⁶. Rural women encounter several obstacles, such as a lack of proficiency in modern technologies, cultural limitations, and worries over safety and privacy.[52] The income factor is a significant determinant that affects both device ownership and the affordability of data, hence limiting the complete exploitation of existing networks.[53] [16]

Pakistan still ranks 8th internationally in terms of the number of subscriptions²². Notwithstanding the difficulties posed by expensive prices, the mobile market in Pakistan has shown a significant increase in both demand and subscriptions¹⁶.

2.4.1.6 Telecommunication Market Dynamics 

The Pakistan telecom market is moderately fragmented. Some major players in the market studied include Pakistan Telecommunication Company Ltd (PTCL), Pakistan Mobile Communications Limited (Jazz), Telenor Pakistan Limited, Pak Telecommunication Mobile Limited (Ufone), and Special Communications Organization (SCO). The market also hosts other Internet service providers (ISPs), MVNOs, and fixed-line service providers. Some Pakistani telecommunication companies are also competitive internationally and hold firm ground in the global telecom space[54].

Intra-industry partnerships are gradually gaining ground. In August 2022, PTCL announced a partnership with Huawei to launch Smart Solutions powered by the latter. The program would provide businesses with secure one-window telecommunication services[55]. In May 2022, Jazz singed up with Nayatel, the fiber infrastructure and services provider. This agreement enabled Jazz to connect all its mobile towers directly to fiber in Lahore[56].

Pakistan’s mobile telecommunication market is experiencing growth, driven by a young population. By 2025, the number of mobile subscriptions is expected to reach 241 million, generating a market size of USD 5.32 billion by 2029. This growth has implied that four major market players – Jazz, Telenor, Ufone, and Zong are engaged in a competition for market share using pricing strategies, value-added services, and targeted marketing. Among these players, Jazz has the highest subscriber base^[57]. This competition favorably impacted consumer welfare in terms of affordable data packages and cheaper call rates.[58]

As data consumption increases, operators are deploying 4G infrastructure and preparing for the arrival of 5G[59]. The Special Communications Organization (SCO), operating under the Ministry of IT & Telecom, Government of Pakistan, was established in 1976 with the mandate to develop, operate, and maintain telecommunications services in Azad Jammu & Kashmir and Gilgit Baltistan. Over the years, SCO has invested significantly in information technology and telecommunications infrastructure, including the deployment of a 4800-kilometer optical fiber cable network spanning the entire region. SCO stands out as the primary telecom network and service provider in the area. Serving both public and private sectors, SCO offers a comprehensive range of telecom and IT services, making it unique in providing diverse services from voice to data through a single platform.

With the lowest average revenue per user (ARPU) in the world[60], Pakistan is arguably the most difficult market to survive in, and Telenor’s recent exodus from Pakistan[61] is a glaring example. Price wars, often fueled by predatory tactics, sometime leave little room for infrastructure investment and network upgrades. This has resulted in congested networks, unreliable connections, and compromised user experience[62].

Pakistan’s telecom industry is still less developed than that of most other Asian nations. However, due to this lack of concentration, mobile can overtake other platforms as the main voice and data platforms. The country’s mobile voice and mobile broadband sectors have recently experienced double-digit subscriber growth rates. Pakistan’s mobile industry is fiercely competitive, unlike the fixed network sector.

The Pakistan telecom market size is estimated at USD 4.52 billion in 2024 and is expected to reach USD 5.32 billion by 2029, growing at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 3.28% during the forecast period (2024-2029). Tele density in Pakistan has increased exponentially in recent years and is also expected to rise in the upcoming years. The FDI trends in the telecom sector are sporadic and await a longer-term policy vision.

PTCL Group also tested the 5G technology in 2023. However, the 5G trial was conducted in a limited environment on a non-commercial basis^[63]. Future innovations in industries, including manufacturing, public safety, transportation, and remote education, would be made possible by this technology. Mobile carriers and fixed-wireless providers could deliver richer services and improve client experiences thanks to the technology as exhibited in Table 4.

Table 4: Frequency spectrum available and allocated for mobile communication and satellite broadcasting.

Some of the future policy initiatives include formulating a spectrum sharing and trading framework to optimize frequency resource utilization, reallocating the 700MHz band for mobile services, repurposing spectrum in the 1950MHz-1980MHz/2140MHz-2170MHz range, reassigning and renewing licenses for 900MHz and 1800MHz spectrum, and allocating previously unassigned spectrum. Following the reclamation of the 2500MHz band from pay-TV operator Southern Network, the PTA and FAB seek to repurpose it for mobile services, specifically 5G technology[65].

The PTA planned two auction phases in 2023, with the first offering 3.5 GHz 5G spectrum on July 18, 2023, and the second, held on July 25, 2023, providing 4G and 3G services in the 1800, 2100, and 2300 MHz bands. Anticipated auction proceeds of USD1 billion were earmarked for the PTA’s Universal Service Fund (USF), supporting the development of rural telecom networks.

Accessible to all Pakistani cellular companies, the auction aimed to enhance USF earnings, expedite Pakistan’s 5G rollout, and foster telecom competition. However, challenges emerged, including the emphasis on 5G hindering participation for some operators due to the complexities of 5G deployment, regulatory approval requirements potentially causing delays or cancellations, and the overarching goal of benefiting Pakistan’s telecom sector by accelerating 5G service rollout and stimulating market competition[66].

As of February 2023, the user experience rating of the various mobile operators is provided in Table 5.

Table 5: Mobile user experience award results[17]

The Pakistani smartphone industry projects earnings of around USD 3.8 billion in 2024. As the smartphone market expands, there is a corresponding escalation in the demand for data usage, with analysts anticipating a 3.21% CAGR from 2024 to 2028.  By 2024, the per capita income generated by Pakistan’s smartphone sector is expected to reach USD15.42, reflecting a continuous upward trajectory in smartphone sales, which are anticipated to reach 13.3 million units by 2028, with a modest 1.2% volume growth projected in 2025[68].

2.4.2 Digital Divide

While urban areas may enjoy connectivity, large rural regions are lacking the necessary resources to access the online world. Even in cases where access is available, its affordability can be a significant barrier, excluding those with lower incomes. The disparities in digital literacy only serve to further widen this divide, particularly among women and rural communities who often lack the necessary skills and confidence to navigate the digital landscape.

The lack of online content in local languages and inadequate integration of technology into education systems create further hurdles, perpetuating a cycle of exclusion³⁶. Bridging this digital divide demands an approach that tackles infrastructure, affordability, digital literacy, and sociocultural barriers, ensuring equitable access to the transformative power of technology for all Pakistanis[69]. Another hurdle arises from high internet costs relative to income levels, particularly affecting low-income families in rural areas and restricting their access to the digital world.

2.4.2.1 Dimensions of Digital Divide

2.4.2.1.1 Geographic

Pakistan’s digital landscape exhibits deep geographic disparities in access and usage. Rural areas particularly lag as 55% of the population resides in countryside zones but only 15% have internet connectivity compared to 55% penetration in cities[70] (Awan & Shah, 2022). Rural-urban divides also exist across mobile ownership (65% vs 85% in urban areas)³⁶ and speeds (9Mbps vs 21Mbps)[71] highlighting uneven infrastructure distribution. The western parts of Balochistan have the lowest access rates[72]. National Broadband Policy suggests that targeted USF backed initiatives for infrastructure expansion in remote vicinities can help bridge these geographic divides[73].

2.4.2.1.2 Socioeconomic

Income, education, and gender intersect to determine technological access and affordability. Only 27% of households in the lowest income quintile have internet access relative to 77% adoption amongst top earners. Meanwhile, computer literacy sees a 35% gender gap showing women’s marginalization[74]. Rural women face multidimensional barriers spanning skills, cultural constraints, security concerns and cost challenges³⁶. Income impacts both device ownership and data affordability, restricting full utilization of available networks.

2.4.2.1.3 Gender

Pakistan exhibits one of Asia’s widest gender digital divides with women 41% less likely to use mobile internet than men. This gap spans both access and usage. Key barriers include lower mobile ownership (67% vs. 79% for men), digital skills gaps (women make up just 14% of ICT graduates), and cultural constraints on women’s mobility and autonomy in rural setups²². Online harassment could also disproportionately impact women.

The internet connectivity gap in Pakistan hinders women’s economic growth and freedom. Pakistani women utilize the internet 43% less than men. Only 26% of Pakistani women can access the internet, and 7% in rural areas, revealing a significant discrepancy, especially in less urbanized areas. There are 22 million fewer women than men having mobile phones. This digital divide keeps women offline and hinders their capacity to learn, work from home, and find new jobs, preventing their economic independence.

2.4.2.2 Digital Literacy

Enhancing digital literacy could improve Pakistan’s GDP by USD 36 billion and create 4 million jobs by 2025. According to the central bank, utilization of increased digital financial services is also dependent on higher levels of digital literacy[75]. The central bank also found that a 1% increase in secondary education among women might boost economic growth by 0.3%. Despite 47% of 191 million cellphone customers having 3G and 4G services and Pakistan being one of the largest freelance workforces[76] only 3% of women can copy or move a file on a computer or phone[77]. The economy will benefit from empowering women with digital talents and focusing on 104 million Pakistanis who are offline, and internet deprived.

3 Conclusion

Pakistan’s digital transformation trajectory is constrained by systemic bottlenecks that undermine its capacity to harness technological advancements for sustainable development. While mobile broadband subscriptions have tripled since 2016, fixed-line infrastructure remains underdeveloped, with fiber-optic coverage at 1% and fixed broadband penetration at 1%, lagging behind regional benchmarks (Vietnam: 44.5% fiber penetration). The digital divide, exacerbated by geographic fragmentation (Balochistan’s 25% internet penetration), gender inequities (26% female internet access), and income disparities, perpetuates exclusion for 45% of the population. Provincial digitization strategies, though innovative, suffer from inconsistent execution and intergovernmental coordination deficits. The telecommunications sector, characterized by hypercompetition and price wars, faces profitability challenges, compounded by energy inefficiencies (13.5% of cell towers fiberized) and regulatory ambiguities in spectrum management. Pakistan’s suboptimal rankings—in global indices 45th in the World Internet Development Index (2023) and 78th in the Fiber Development Index—reflect systemic governance gaps, including delayed adoption of AI-driven public services and inadequate cybersecurity frameworks. To position Pakistan as a competitive digital economy, structural reforms must prioritize infrastructure modernization, equitable access, and institutional capacity-building. Failure to address these imperatives risks entrenching technological marginalization and forfeiting opportunities for global economic integration.

4 Policy Recommendations

4.1  Infrastructure Modernization and Energy Efficiency:

o Fiber-Optic Expansion:

Accelerate deployment via public-private partnerships (PPPs), targeting 90,000 km of metro optical fiber by 2025, with USF-funded projects prioritized in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

o Data Center Development:

Incentivize private investment in Tier-4 data centers through tax holidays and renewable energy integration (e.g., solar-powered cooling systems) to align with global sustainability standards (e.g., ISO 50001).

4.2 Equitable Access and Inclusion:

o Gender-Inclusive Digital Policies:

Introduce targeted subsidies for female smartphone ownership, coupled with community-based digital literacy programs co-designed with NGOs and academia.

o   Rural Connectivity:

Implement tax exemptions for ISPs operating in underserved regions and deploy hybrid solar-diesel systems for telecom towers to mitigate power outages.

4.3 Regulatory and Fiscal Optimization:

o  Spectrum Management:

Reallocate underutilized bands (e.g., 700MHz, 2500MHz) for 5G deployment and establish a spectrum-sharing framework to enhance utilization efficiency.

o Tax Reforms:

Rationalize import duties on ICT equipment (currently 30% of mobile ownership costs) and introduce graduated tax relief for locally manufactured smartphones.

4.4 Digital Literacy and Workforce Development:

o Curriculum Integration:

Mandate digital competency modules in primary and secondary education, emphasizing coding, cybersecurity, and data literacy, with UNESCO-aligned teacher training programs.

o Public-Private Upskilling:

Partner with global tech firms (e.g., Google, Huawei) to scale certification programs (e.g., e-Learn Punjab) nationally, targeting 4 million jobs by 2025.

4.5 Cybersecurity and Governance Enhancement:

o Centralized Cyber Authority:

Operationalize the National Cybersecurity Policy by establishing a National Cybersecurity Operations Center (NCOC) for real-time threat monitoring and response.

o AI-Driven Governance:

Deploy machine learning tools for predictive analytics in public service delivery (e.g., Pakistan Single Window) to reduce bureaucratic latency.

4.6 Market Liberalization and Innovation:

o FDI Attraction:

Revise licensing frameworks to facilitate MVNO entry and streamline Right-of-Way approvals through interprovincial coordination councils.

o Tech Incubation:

Replicate Sindh Digital Village in Balochistan and KP, with seed funding for AI/ML startups and tax incentives for venture capital investments.

4.7 Climate-Resilient Infrastructure:

o Energy Standards:

Enforce mandatory energy performance certificates (EPCs) for data centers, mandating Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE) ratios below 1.5.

4.8 Implementation Framework:

Establish a cross-ministerial Digital Transformation Task Force to monitor progress against KPIs (e.g., fiber penetration, gender parity indices) and publish biannual compliance reports.

5 References

[1] Includes access, content, and future technologies.

[2] Includes individuals, businesses, and governments.

[3] Includes trust, regulation, and inclusion.

[4]   Includes economy, quality of life, and contribution to SDGs

[5] Higher score shows the higher penetration and quality of fiber connectivity.

[6] Sources for two datasets are separately mentioned

[7] For details see https://www.statista.com/outlook/tmo/data-center/pakistan

[8] For details see https://www.statista.com/outlook/tmo/data-center/malaysia

[9] For details see https://www.statista.com/outlook/tmo/data-center/vietnam

[10] For details see https://www.statista.com/outlook/tmo/data-center/worldwide

[11] A summary of the definitions of Datacenter Tiers is provided below:

Tier 1: This tier features a single power and cooling path with no backup components, providing an expected annual uptime of 99.671%.

Tier 2: With a single power and cooling path, Tier 2 incorporates some redundant and backup components, offering an anticipated yearly uptime of 99.741%.

Tier 3: Tier 3 introduces multiple power and cooling paths alongside redundant systems, enabling maintenance without downtime, and ensuring an expected annual uptime of 99.982%.

Tier 4: The highest level of fault tolerance is found in Tier 4, where redundancy extends to every component, guaranteeing an anticipated yearly uptime of 99.995%. References for these definitions can be provided as needed.

[12] For details see https://pakistan.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2024-06/pk-c972-national-report-on-the-status-of-women-s.pdf

[13] For details see https://pakistan.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2024-06/pk-c972-national-report-on-the-status-of-women-s.pdf

[14] For details see https://pakistan.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2024-06/pk-c972-national-report-on-the-status-of-women-s.pdf

[15] For details see https://www.gsma.com/solutions-and-impact/connectivity-for-good/mobile-for-development/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Addressing-the-Mobile-Gender-Gap-in-Pakistan.pdf

[16] Also note that in rural areas, the percentage of internet connectivity decreases to 38%, which is lower than the 55% in metropolitan zones.

[17] The X shows that the mobile operator was given the award in this particular category

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